This post uses guest writers. Excellent article. Read the excerpt here. Link to the full article at bottom of this post:
In the first part of this series,1 we established that apocalyptic Christian writers were deeply concerned about the
fate of those who had no chance to receive the gospel in this life. They felt that an eternal condemnation meted out to these souls—simply because they had not accepted the inaccessible—was not in keeping with their understanding of a merciful God.
This concern is the crux of the soteriological problem of evil, which is best stated as a logically inconsistent triad: (1) God is perfectly loving and just, desiring that all his children be saved; (2) salvation comes only through an individual’s acceptance of Christ’s salvific gifts in this life; and (3) countless numbers of God’s children have died without having a chance to hear about, much less accept, Christ’s salvific gifts.2 Surely, the God of mercy would offer salvation to all; according to some early apocalyptic Jewish and Christian
writers, he has. Apocalyptic Jews taught that eternal damnation was a punishment reserved for fallen archangels and wicked men,3 while righteous Gentiles would be spared such tortures.4 However, this solution did not fully mitigate the soteriological problem of evil; righteous Gentiles, although escaping endless punishment, would not share in the exaltation of the covenant people.
Some early Christians, on the other hand, provided a more thorough solution than the said Jewish predecessors. They taught that righteous individuals could receive the gospel in the next life through postmortem evangelization, a work initiated by Jesus’s descent into hell “to save those who had not known him on earth.” 5 However, some did not believe that postmortem acceptance of the gospel was sufficient to ensure the salvation of the deceased but that it must also be accompanied by vicarious ordinance work, a belief implicit in their involvement in baptisms for the dead.
In this paper we will provide evidence that the practice of baptism for the dead existed in some early Christian6 communities. We do not attempt to prove that baptism for the dead is a true teaching. This cannot be demonstrated by historical research. We intend only to trace the history of proxy baptism in early Christianity and the theological rationale for its practice. To support our thesis, we will show that early Christians, including New Testament writers, taught that baptism is essential to salvation. Because of this belief, vicarious baptisms were performed to ensure that the unbaptized dead would not be denied access to salvation. Next, we examine 1 Corinthians 15:29, arguing that metaphorical interpretations of this passage are ultimately unconvincing. Instead, we support what some modern scholars refer to as the “majority reading,” 7 which understands 15:29 as a reference to vicarious baptism. Third, we explore the possible origins of the practice by examining the texts that teach doctrines closely related to baptism for the dead. And, finally, we detail the historical practice of proxy baptisms by early Christian communities now labeled “heretical.” We argue, however, that retroactively measuring ancient Christian practices by later standards of orthodoxy is misguided and that we must, therefore, independently reexamine practices traditionally considered heretical.
Before setting out and assessing historical evidence for early Christian practice of proxy baptisms for the dead, an important caveat is in order: though Joseph Smith believed that first-century Christians performed proxy baptisms,8 the modern Latter-day Saint practice is not grounded on historical precedent. Rather, as we will detail in the last part of this series, it is based on modern revelation.
Baptismal Theology of the New Testament and Patristic Literature
Proxy baptisms are based on the conviction that the sacrament of baptism is necessary for salvation. Accordingly, we will look at the teachings of New Testament and patristic writers regarding the necessity of this sacred ordinance. These writers taught that baptism was essential for forgiveness of sins and for entrance into the church and into heaven. Indeed, according to Everett Ferguson in his highly respected study of early Christian liturgy, Christians through the first five centuries believed that baptism “effects salvation, forgiveness of sins, freedom from the rule of sin and death, purification, and washing.” 9
Three main arguments from the New Testament support the essential nature of baptism. First, Christ himself is baptized, signifying the necessity for Christians to receive the same. Second, there are pivotal verses of scripture, such as John 3:5, Mark 16:14–16, and Matthew 28:19, which, according to some scholars, affirm the necessity of baptism for salvation. Third, throughout the book of Acts, baptism is without question the rite of initiation that all converts must undergo. According to Acts, this rite assures the convert a remission of sins and links them to Christ.
The synoptic Gospels all attest to the fact that Christ was baptized by John in order to “fulfill all righteousness” (Matthew 3:13–17; cf. Mark 1:9; Luke 3:21). W. F. Albright and C. S. Mann explain Christ’s baptism in relation to Matthew’s goal of showing Christ’s fulfillment of ancient scriptural prophecies. These scholars explain the term fulfill all righteousness as a reference to the “fulfillment of those Scriptures in which those demands are set out—law, prophets, writings. In any event, the baptism administered by John was a direct response to the will of God, and so the Messiah must submit to it.” 10 Thus Christ’s baptism, for Matthew, fulfilled both divine commands and ancient scripture (notably Isaiah 43:2 and Psalm 2:7). The Oxford Bible Commentary suggests that Matthew’s account demonstrates this fulfillment of both commands and scripture by focusing on the apocalyptic vision that Christ receives upon baptism, in which God affirms Jesus as his Son and the Holy Ghost descends as a dove.11 A few Christian authors such as Hilary, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Chromatius, and Cyril of Alexandria declare Christ’s baptism as the example for Christians to follow, that they may receive salvation and remission of sins.12 Although no New Testament text explicitly confirms the point, Jesus’s baptism likely became the foundation for later Christian baptism.13
Christ’s example of baptism is not alone in signaling the necessity of the ordinance. Mark 16:15–16 declares a similar sentiment: “And he said unto them, Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature. He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved; but he that believeth not shall be damned.” It is quite certain that this passage was added to the text by a later author.14 Nonetheless, it still corroborates the doctrine of baptism, as it was added by a Christian who obviously believed baptism was salvifically requisite. This addition was added before AD 185, as it is quoted by Irenaeus 15 and perhaps may be referenced earlier by Justin.16 Regardless, a Christian of the first or second century inserted these verses, and they were taken as canon by many Christians following thereafter.
Matthew’s Gospel records that the risen Christ instructs the apostles: “Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost: Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world. Amen” (Matthew 28:19). According to Matthew, then, one of the duties of the apostles was to teach and baptize all nations.
Professor Ulrich Luz notes in his commentary on these verses that “the task of ‘making disciples’ of the nations involves first of all the command to baptize. Since baptism is the sign that all Christians have in common, the command to baptize is a confession of the whole church.” 17 He further explains, “It is certain that with their baptism the newly won disciples of Jesus follow the example of Jesus who also submitted to baptism (3:13–17). Just as in so doing he ‘fulfilled all righteousness,’ they too follow him onto the way of righteousness.” 18 Matthew’s account of Christ’s ministry thus begins and ends 19 with a call to baptism—first with the example of Christ’s own baptism in the third chapter of the work and finally with the risen Lord’s dramatic commission to go to “all nations” and baptize those who will believe and follow. Ferguson notes that “early Christians commonly based their practice of baptism on the dominical command of Matthew 28:19 and on the Lord’s example.”20
John 3:5, when read straightforwardly, explicitly indicates that baptism by water is essential for “entrance into the kingdom of heaven.” Many Christian authors and writings from the early centuries—including Tertullian,21 Justin Martyr,22 Ambrose,23 Irenaeus,24 Cyprian,25 and the Seventh Council of Carthage 26—cite John 3:5 as evidence for the necessity of baptism for salvation. Tertullian, for example, boldly declares: “The prescript is laid down that ‘without baptism, salvation is attainable by none’ (chiefly on the ground of that declaration of the Lord, who says, ‘Unless one be born of water, he hath not life’).” 27 Modern scholars may disagree about the proper interpretation of John 3:5,28 but many prominent early church writers unequivocally read 3:5 as affirming that baptism is necessary for salvation.
Finally, Christian history lends support to our claim that baptism was considered necessary. Throughout the book of Acts and the writings of the church fathers, baptism is viewed as the mandatory initiation rite for converts into Christendom. Acts 2:38; 8:12, 38; 9:18; 10:48; 16:14–15, 30–34; 18:8; and 22:16 all present historical evidence that whenever a group of people were converted to Christianity baptism was the ordinance that initiated them into the faith. Lars Hartman, in the Anchor Bible Dictionary, notes, “It [Baptism] is treated as the undisputed initiation rite of the Church . . . baptism is mentioned as a natural step in connection with people’s acceptance of the message about Christ, i.e., becoming believers; . . . baptism was practised from the very beginning in the early church.” 29 It further explains that, in Acts, “entering the Christian community through faith and baptism means to be ‘saved’ (2:40; 11:14; 16:30–31).” 30 Acts 2:38 is quite explicit in tying baptism with forgiveness of sins: “then Peter said unto them, repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins.” This verse illustrates the Lukan understanding of what it means to convert to Christianity: “Those who receive the apostolic message, recognize Jesus as Lord and Messiah, repent, and are baptized in his name receive forgiveness, the Holy Spirit, and salvation.” 31
The Maxwell Institute: Volume 19, Issue 2. Many other scholarly articles to enjoy.